Legal Accountability for Artificial Intelligence Creations in Industry 4.0
Comparative Study of Indonesia, United States, and Thailand
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.19184/ejlh.v13i1.53778Abstract
The development of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Industry 4.0 has evolved into autonomous systems capable of generating creations and decisions with legal consequences, creating an accountability gap within legal systems based on human agency. This article compares legal accountability frameworks for AI-generated creations in Indonesia, the United States, and Thailand and proposes an ideal model of legal reconstruction amid the absence of binding international regulation. Using normative legal research with comparative and conceptual approaches, the study analyzes legislation, legal doctrines, and judicial decisions. The findings show that all three jurisdictions reject AI as a legal subject but adopt different accountability mechanisms: Indonesia emphasizes administrative responsibility and presumption of liability; the United States applies product liability and the cheapest cost avoider doctrine; while Thailand adopts a risk-based approach through preventive liability and regulatory sandboxes. The study concludes that an adaptive model integrating *ubi commodum ibi onus*, risk-based regulation, strict liability, reversed burden of proof, and clear human or corporate responsibility is needed to ensure legal certainty and effective protection.
KEYWORDS: Artificial intelligence, Legal Accountability, Industry 4.0.
Downloads
References
Abbott, Ryan & Elizabeth Rothman, “A Utilitarian Approach to Copyright Law and Generative Artificial Intelligence” in Research Handbook on Law and Utilitarianism (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2024) 349.
———, “When Machines Create: AI Authorship and Copyright Law” in Research Handbook on the Law of Artificial Intelligence (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2025) 652.
Al-Dulaimi, Ahmed Oudah Mohammed & Mohammed Abd-Al Wahab, “Legal Responsibility for Errors Caused by Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the Public Sector” (2025) 68:4 International Journal of Law and Management 695–722.
Amrin, Amrin et al, “The Role of Youth Innovation and Collaboration in Driving National Economic Growth Towards Golden Indonesia 2045: A Legal Perspective” (2025) 3:3 Solo International Collaboration and Publication of Social Sciences and Humanities 425–440.
Arcila, Beatriz Botero, “AI Liability Along the Value Chain: Lessons from the Liability of Suppliers of Components in Product Liability Law” (2025) 18:1 Journal of Tort Law 247–281.
Baeyaert, Joffrey, “Beyond Personhood: The Evolution of Legal Personhood and Its Implications for AI Recognition” (2025) Technology and Regulation 355–386.
Bertolini, Andrea & Francesca Episcopo, “Robots and AI as Legal Subjects? Disentangling the Ontological and Functional Perspective” (2022) 9:1 Frontiers in Robotics and AI 1–15.
Braun, Tomasz, “Liability for Artificial Intelligence Reasoning Technologies – a Cognitive Autonomy That Does Not Help” (2026) 26:6 Corporate Governance 1390–1410.
Cheong, Inyoung, Aylin Caliskan & Tadayoshi Kohno, “Safeguarding Human Values: Rethinking US Law for Generative AI’s Societal Impacts” (2025) 5:2 AI and Ethics 1433–1459.
Cistulli, Megan E, “Generative AI Meets Section 230: The Future of Liability and Its Implications for Startup Innovation” (2025) 4:2 The University of Chicago Business Law Review 489–523.
Davtyan, Tatevik, “The U.S. Approach to AI Regulation: Federal Laws, Policies, and Strategies Explained” (2025) 16:2 Journal of Law, Technology, & the Internet 223–259.
Ebers, Martin, “Truly Risk-Based Regulation of Artificial Intelligence How to Implement the EU’s AI Act” (2025) 16:2 European Journal of Risk Regulation 684–703.
Español, Armando Guio & Pascal D Koenig, “Regulatory Sandboxes for AI in the Majority World: A Learning-Centric Approach to Legal Adaptation” (2025) 1 Cambridge Forum on AI: Law and Governance 1–20.
Fernando, Zico Junius et al, “Neurolaw: A Concept in Development and Enforcement of Criminal Law in Indonesia” (2025) 7:1 Jambura Law Review 55–87.
Filipova, I A, “Legal Regulation of Artificial Intelligence: Experience of China” (2024) 2:1 Journal of Digital Technologies and Law 46–73.
Fomin, Vladislav & Paulius Astromskis, “The Black Box Problem” in Future Law, Ethics, and Smart Technologies (Leiden: Brill, 2023) 112.
George, A Shaji, “The Critical Role of Cybersecurity Insurance in an Era of Exponential Threats: A Review of Emerging Risk Realities and Policy Safeguards for Enterprise Resilience” (2025) 4:1 Partners Universal International Research Journal 1–23.
Gilles, Stephen G, “Negligence, Strict Liability, and the Cheapest Cost-Avoider” (1992) 78:6 Virginia Law Review 1291.
Intani, Aulia Anugrah & Fauza Annisa, “Legal Analysis of Artificial Intelligence Technology Development in Healthcare Industry in Indonesia” (2024) 1:1 South-East Asian Journal of Advanced Law and Governance (SEAJ ALGOV) 1–19.
Javaid, Mohd et al, “Artificial Intelligence Applications for Industry 4.0: A Literature-Based Study” (2021) 7:1 Journal of Industrial Integration and Management 83–111.
Jongwanich, Juthathip, “Readiness of Thailand Towards the Digital Economy on JSTOR” (2023) 40:1 Journal of Southeast Asian Economies 64–95.
Kusuma, Lalu Aria Nata, “Environmental Disputes Without Protection Of Strict Liability Principles: Again, Law On Job Creation” (2022) 7:1 Law and Justice 1–13.
Latif, Imran et al, “Advancing Sustainability in Data Centers: Evaluation of Hybrid Air/Liquid Cooling Schemes for IT Payload Using Sea Water” (2025) 13:1 IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing 184–197.
Lin, Geng, “Introduction to Fault-Based and Strict Liability in Chinese Civil Law” in Fault-Based and Strict Liability (Austria: Jan Sramek Verlag KG, 2024) 13.
Litoama, Fransiskus & Purgito, “The Legal Certainty of Legitimate Ownership in Copyright Works of Songs or Music, as Well as Associated Rights in Non-Declarative Recording in Accordance with the Royalty Management System under Government Regulation No. 56 of 2021” (2023) 2:1 Sinergi International Journal of Law 1–13.
Lund, Brady et al, “Standards, frameworks, and legislation for artificial intelligence (AI) transparency” (2025) 5:4 AI and Ethics 3639–3655.
Muftić, Nasir, “Liability Within the Wider Framework” in Artificial Intelligence and Tortious Liability (Cham: Springer, 2025) 51.
Netipatalachoochote, Stanati & Ludovic Pailler, “Developing Artificial Intelligence Legislation in Thailand: Lessons from the European Union” (2025) 5:1 Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System 1–32.
Nurhayati, Nunik et al, “Legal Certainty of The Positive Fictive Policy In Business Licensing Through The Online Single Submission Risk-Based Approach System In Indonesia” (2025) 10:2 Jurnal Ius Constituendum 224–241.
Orji, Chidi Paul et al, “A Critique of John Rawls Ethical Principle of Justice and the Problems of Social Justice in Modern Society” (2025) 11:1 NIU Journal of Legal Studies 73–80.
Parycek, Peter, Verena Schmid & Anna-Sophie Novak, “Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Automation in Administrative Procedures: Potentials, Limitations, and Framework Conditions” (2023) 15:2 Journal of the Knowledge Economy 8390–8415.
Paz, Anderson Barbosa, “A Critique of State and Law in Hans Kelsen’s Thought from Herman Dooyeweerd’s Philosophy” (2024) 90:1 Philosophia Reformata 1–24.
Raposo, Vera Lúcia, “The Use of Facial Recognition Technology by Law Enforcement in Europe: a Non-Orwellian Draft Proposal” (2023) 29:4 European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 515–533.
Rechnitzer, Tanja, “Precautionary Principles” in Applying Reflective Equilibrium (Cham: Springer, 2022) 63.
Sereewatthanawut, Issara et al, “Efficient AI-driven allegation screening: A case study of Thailand’s National Anti-Corruption Commission” (2026) 21:1 PLOS One 1–20.
Thalgi, Mohammad, “AI Ethics in Islamic Contents: Applications Per UNESCO Recommendations” in Tech Fusion in Business and Society (Cham: Springer, 2025) 333.
Verhoest, Koen et al, “Trust and regulation” in Handbook on Trust in Public Governance (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2025) 360.
Wang, Peng et al, “E-Waste Challenges of Generative Artificial Intelligence” (2024) 4:11 Nature Computational Science 818–823.
Wrigley, Sam, “Bring in the Sceptics: Using Science and Technology Studies in Law” (2025) 16:1 European Journal of Risk Regulation 51–62.
Yusro, Mochammad Abizar, “Shareholders Lawsuit: Fraud on Minority Law Enforcement to Invent Corrective Justice During the Covid-19” (2022) 8:1 Law Research Review Quarterly 89=104.
DePaula, Nic et al, Regulating the machine: An exploratory study of US state legislations addressing Artificial Intelligence, 2019-2023 (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 2024).
Goswami, Debashish & Md Nazrul Islam Khan, “Cybercrime and Contractual Liability: A Systematic Review of Legal Precedents and Risk Mitigation Frameworks” (2025) Rochester, NY.
Singh, Aditi et al, A Survey of Sustainability in Large Language Models: Applications, Economics, and Challenges (Las Vegas: IEEE, 2025).
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Sujana Donandi Sinuraya, Miranda Risang Ayu, Danrivanto Budhijanto, U. Sudjana, Dinara F. Abdunayimova
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
